Throughout most of the Middle Ages and much of the modern era, the Republic of Genoa distinguished itself not only in traditional trade and finance, but also in the military sphere. On more than one occasion throughout its long history, Genoa sought to protect its possessions and wealth by establishing war fleets or enlisting militias to defend the territory of the motherland or its colonies and trading posts; it also had the foresight to provide its allies, on various occasions, with substantial contingents of naval and land forces. Specifically, between the 12th and 14th centuries, the Republic—or groups of Genoese in exile—made available to foreign communes, potentates, or monarchies various contingents of armed men belonging to a special category: the crossbowmen.
The first mercenary deployment of the Republic’s crossbowmen dates back to 1173 when, following the signing of a military agreement between the Marquisate of Gavi and Genoa, the city of San Giorgio undertook, if necessary, to provide its ally—in exchange for payment—with a certain number of skilled crossbowmen. However, the first substantial deployment of these soldiers by a foreign “power” occurred more than a century later, in 1225, when the city of Asti obtained from Genoa “for one month of service” one hundred foot crossbowmen and twenty mounted crossbowmen to be deployed against the neighboring city of Alessandria. But let us try to understand why it was precisely in Genoa that the crossbow—intended as an instrument of both defense and attack—took hold to the point of becoming a veritable national weapon, highly prized for its characteristics and destined to represent, after the galley, the distinctive symbol of the Republic’s military strength. First of all, it must be made clear right away that the crossbow was not originally a weapon of Genoese tradition, having been discovered and imported from the Middle East around the middle of the 9th century A.D., where the Arabs, in turn, had introduced it from distant China, its true country of origin.
The battle of Crécy.
The invention of the crossbow dates back to very ancient times. Suffice it to say that as early as 500 B.C., the Chinese strategist Sun Tzu spoke of it at length—and enthusiastically—in his now-famous treatise The Art of War. The weapon was, in fact, used by the Chinese imperial army, with remarkable results, during the long conflicts it waged against the Mongols and the Arabs. For many centuries, the Chinese remained loyal to this weapon, using it right up until very recent times. A special model of repeating crossbow (i.e., equipped with a quiver for bolts and a mechanical reloading system) was even used during the war against Japan in 1894–1895.
Late medieval siege.
But let us return to the Ligurian crossbow. Toward the end of the 1100s, after a relatively long period of widespread but sporadic and undisciplined use of the weapon by the Republic’s infantry, the military command of the Superba decided to form a full-fledged corps of elite crossbowmen intended, in the event of conflict, for specific tactical tasks. Within a few years, the core of what would become the spearhead of the Army of St. George had thus taken shape. The crossbowmen, known as “balistari,” were divided into units called “bandiere,” each composed of twenty men and commanded by a constable. For the recruitment and subsequent training of the troops, the Republic—pursuant to a specific ordinance issued by the Doge and the War Office—appointed two noblemen who were experts in the use of weapons. They were tasked with evaluating not only the men’s physical prowess and courage but also their natural aptitude for wielding a weapon that required steady nerves, keen eyesight, and precision (preference was naturally given to those who demonstrated familiarity with projectile weapons, such as the bow and the sling). After enlistment, each man—who had to swear allegiance to the Republic and was required to be represented by a guarantor—was paid in advance a salary that varied according to his duties and rank (a constable received double the sum of a rank-and-file crossbowman). A soldier’s contract was usually for a fixed term, ranging from three to six months. And if, during this period, a crossbowman deserted or refused to perform his duties, it was the guarantor who would suffer the consequences, as he was required to reimburse the government for the salary, on pain of imprisonment.
Crossbowmen vs archers (painting preserved in Biblioteque nationale de France).
The Genoese stirrup Crossbow.
The crossbow model most frequently used by the Genoese militias was the so-called “stirrup” crossbow, which differed both from the smaller, lighter Chinese weapon and from the larger, so-called “stationary” crossbow—that is, one intended for static defense. Over the years, the Genoese crossbow underwent various modifications and technical refinements that ultimately transformed it into a truly effective and original infantry weapon.
The construction of stirrup crossbows was entrusted to specialized armorer craftsmen who, beginning in 1275, were organized into a dedicated guild. The production of this weapon, weighing about six kilograms, was carried out with great precision and was subject to strict technical and quality control by the authorities. The stirrup crossbow consisted of a stock, usually made of beech or oak (and, for certain high-quality models, Italian yew), a bow—initially made of wood, sometimes reinforced with bovine bones or horns, and later made of forged iron—a string made of braided hemp or animal sinew, and an iron stirrup positioned on the outer top of the bow, which served to hold the crossbow steady on the ground while it was being loaded. The typical ammunition for the crossbow consisted of sturdy, pyramid-tipped bolts or lighter, conical-tipped bolts. Both types of projectiles were crafted by a specialized guild of artisans known as “quarellari.”
The Genoese crossbow outperformed the bow in terms of range—and above all in penetrating power, as it was capable of easily piercing a knight’s armor or passing right through a horse—even though the bow was obviously easier to reload. A professional archer was, in fact, able to fire an average of 5–6 arrows per minute, compared to a single quadrello or verrettone from the crossbow. Under optimal wind conditions, the crossbow had a maximum range of 350–400 meters, compared to the bow’s 250–300 meters. In short, from the moment it appeared, the stirrup crossbow proved to be a decidedly effective instrument of death—so much so that it was even banned by the highest religious authorities. During the proceedings of the Lateran Council of 1139, Pope Innocent II called it “an infernal weapon unfit for Christians.” Nevertheless, the weapon very quickly gained the favor of various European powers, which began contacting the Republic to secure the support of Ligurian crossbowmen in the ranks of their armies engaged in war. For almost the entire medieval period, therefore, the Genoese crossbow played a leading role in many military conflicts, proving to be one of the best—if not the best—projectile weapons for infantry. We can therefore speak of a long period of dominance that ended only with the advent in Europe of the first portable firearms (mid-14th century), even though, paradoxically, it was a much older weapon—the bow—that marked the decline of the Ligurian crossbow during a specific battle of the Hundred Years’ War: the Battle of Crécy (1346).
Source: www.ospreypublishing.com
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